LINKERS
LINKERS
CONTENTS AND THEIR ORDER (CHECK COLOURS)
0
– LINKERS IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER
1 – FOREWORD
2
– REASON/CAUSE because – because of – since – as – for –
due to – owing to – on account
of
3 – ADDITION and – also – too – as well– what’s more – in addition –
furthermore– besides
4
– RESULT so
– therefore – consequently – thus – as a result
5 – PURPOSE to (infinitive) – in order to – in order
that – so as to – so that
6
– CONTRAST however
– nevertheless – nonetheless – yet – still – although – though – even if – in
spite of – despite
7 – SIMILARITY similarly – likewise – in the same way – by the same
token
8
– OPINION in
my opinion – in my view – to my mind – as I see it – I (strongly) believe that
– I think/feel that – it seems to me that
9 – ADDING DETAILS actually – in fact – in actual fact – in point of fact
– as a matter of fact
10
– GENERALISING as a rule – by and large – for the most
part – generally – in general –largely – on the whole
11 – GIVING EXAMPLES for example – for instance – such as – like –
particularly – in particular – especially – (more) specifically
12 – LISTING to
begin with/to start with – firstly/secondly/thirdly… – in the first place/in
the second place…. – first of all – then – next – finally – lastly
13 – SEQUENCING first – at first – in the beginning – next – then –
meanwhile – in the meantime – after that – afterwards – at (long) last –
finally – in the end
14
– LINKING TIME when – if – while – as – before – after – until – as
soon as – no sooner than – by the time – immediately – since – suddenly/all of
a sudden
15 – CONCLUDING in conclusion – to conclude – to sum up – finally
16
– BIBLIOGRAPHY
0 – LINKERS IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER
actually 9
after 14
after that13
afterwards 13
also 3
although 6
and 3
as 2/14
as a matter of fact 9
as a result 4
as a rule 10
as I see it 8
as soon as 14
as well 3
at (long) last 13
at first 13
because 2
because of 2
before 14
besides 3
by and large 10
by the same token 7
by the time 14
consequently 4
despite 6
due to 2
especially 11
even if 6
finally 12/13/15
first 13
first of all 12
firstly/secondly/thirdly…12
for 2
for example 11
for instance 11
for the most part 10
furthermore 3
generally 10
however 6
I (strongly) believe that 8
I think/feel that 8
if 14
immediately 14
in actual fact 9
in addition 3
in conclusion 15
in fact 9
in general 10
in my opinion 8
in my view 8
in order that 5
in order to 5
in particular 11
in point of fact 9
in spite of 6
in the beginning 13
in the end 13
in the first place/in the second
place…. 12
in the meantime 13
in the same way 7
it seems to me that 8
largely 10
lastly 12
like 11
likewise 7
meanwhile 13
(more) specifically 11
nevertheless 6
next 12/13
no sooner than 14
nonetheless 6
on account of 2
on the whole 10
owing to 2
particularly 11
similarly 7
since 2/14
so 4
so as to 5
so that 5
still 6
such as 11
suddenly/all of a sudden 14
then 12/13
therefore 4
though 6
thus 4
to (infinitive) 5
to begin with/to start with 12
to conclude 15
to my mind 8
to sum up 15
too 3
until 14
what’s more 3
when 14
while 14
yet 6
1 – FOREWORD
Linkers are words or group of words
(phrases) used to connect elements establishing different relations between
them: cause, addition, purpose, etc. The name may vary depending on the grammar
book you are using. Here we simply list and exemplify them according to the
relation they can establish, call it ‘meaning’. For each meaning we give more
than one linker, but not all of them.
You must bear in mind that many of
these linkers also have other functions and therefore are used in different
ways, which are not dealt with here, and that this list is by no means
exhaustive.
In case of
any terms being unfamiliar to you, let us consider the following:
What
is a sentence? What is a clause? What is a phrase? And an example of ‘linker’?
‘I left his house in a hurry because it was
late’ is a sentence made up of two clauses: 1) ‘I left his house in a hurry’ –the main clause– and 2) ‘because it was late’ –the dependant or
subordinate clause, in this case a clause of reason introduced by ‘because’.
And what is a phrase? Both ‘his house’
and ‘in a hurry’ are phrases. As to
the example of a linker: ‘because’,
which is a conjunction, as any dictionary will tell you. But there are some
linkers that are phrases, for instance ‘in
order to’.
2 – REASON/CAUSE
These linkers
introduce clauses of reason or cause to state the reason for something (event,
action, thinking, etc.). Some of them are: because – because of – since – as –
for – due to – owing to – on account of. (Also: seeing that – considering that
– on account of the fact that – by reason of – etc.)
AS
Meaning:
because
As it was very expensive, we decided not
to buy it.
They may have to come by bus as their car broke down.
As I was exhausted, I went to bed earlier
than usual.
SINCE
Meaning:
because
Since she was not paying attention to him, he
left the party.
Since we were near their place, we decided to
pay them a visit.
Since you were present, you must know what
happened.
FOR
Meaning:
because
‘Today this use of for is rare
in speech and informal
writing, and it often
lends a literary tone
or note of formality’ (the Free Dictionary) – ‘(old-fashioned or literary) used to introduce the reason for something mentioned
in the previous statement’ (from Oxford
Learner’s Dictionary). Both Cambridge
and Collins coincide that it is of
literary use. Yet, we must admit that it sounds beautiful (the blogger’s
opinion)
The children gathered round the fire and listened eagerly, for the story was chilling.
I know she did not believe a single word I said—for I’ve lied many times to her.
He lost his job for
he was late every single day of the week.
DUE TO
Meaning: owing to, because of.
‘Due to’ has been widely used
for many years as a compound preposition like ‘owing to’, but some critics have insisted that ‘due’ should be used only as an
adjective. According to this view, it is incorrect to say ‘The concert was cancelled due to the rain’,
but acceptable to say ‘The
cancellation of the concert was due to the rain’, where ‘due’ continues to function as an
adjective modifying ‘cancellation’.
… In our 2001 survey, however, 60 percent accepted this construction. There is
no linguistic reason to avoid using ‘due to’ as
a preposition, but English has a variety of ready substitutes, including ‘because of’, ‘on account of’, and ‘owing to’ (from the Free Dictionary)
I didn’t join in the hunting party due to the long walk and the mosquitoes.
She loved living in that area due to the beautiful mountains.
Due to the fog in the pass between the
mountains they couldn’t arrive on time.
OWING TO
Meaning: because of
‘Owing to is often used as an alternative to due to when there is no noun or pronoun antecedent earlier in the sentence’. (from Vox Larousse) i.e. when there is no noun
or pronoun earlier, not necessarily right before.
Owing to the sub-zero temperatures, the climbers decided to give up very
near the summit.
The villagers were instructed to evacuate owing to the flood.
ON ACCOUNT OF
Meaning:
because of. Formal. As “of” is a preposition it must be followed by a noun (or
an ‘ing-verb’, which is the verbal form that functions as a noun). Being a
noun, then, when a subject is necessary (‘they’ + ‘ing-verb’) a possessive form
should be used as subject (their + ‘ing-verb’), as in the second example, from
‘Collinsdictionary.com’. ‘their’ or ‘them’? Nowadays, this seems to be a raging
discussion, which dictionaries in general try to avoid when giving examples. In
our opinion, things are changing and ‘their’, which was strong in the 50’s
(when we learnt the language and the model of English was not that of some
series and films) is now losing ground to ‘them’.
The climbers decided to put off the attack on the summit on
account of the jet-speed wind from the north.
A newly-married couple, he thought, on
account of their walking so close together.
I realised they had given the heaviest pack to the green recruit
on account of his walking so unsteadily.
They opted against buying the house on account of the
neighbours’ being so noisy.
3 – ADDITION
Used to
add arguments or points to the one/s already given: and – also – too – as well –
what’s more – in addition (to) – furthermore – besides. We’ll exemplify the
last three. (Also: moreover – additionally – then again – etc.)
WHAT IS MORE (WHAT’S MORE)
Used to
add a point that the speaker or writer finds more important than the preceding
one.
He’s an outstanding athlete, and what’s more, he’s won all the competitions he’s taken part in.
Their house was very beautiful, and, what’s more, it was very cosy.
The pupils there were very polite and very well behaved. What’s more, they never asked a
question without raising their hands first.
IN ADDITION (TO)
Used to
introduce something after mentioning something else.
Living on the outskirts. Well, in addition to the rent, we’ll have to consider rail fares.
My house caught fire, my car broke down, my wife left me, and, in addition (to that), my football team
lost.
Well, in addition,
there’s another problem to take into account.
FURTHERMORE
It is used
to add something to what has just been said, especially a point to an argument.
Notice the position between pauses, either between stop and comma or two commas.
Also that it is a synonym of ‘what’s more’, which is more common in a more
informal speech while this one (furthermore) is more formal.
The cottage is very comfortable and beautiful. Furthermore, it's very well located.
He said he wouldn’t attend the meeting. Furthermore, he would never attend another.
I'm not interested in buying one of your mobile phones, and, furthermore, I’m not interested in buying a mobile phone at all.
BESIDES
Used to add an explanation: in
addition to, apart from, furthermore.
In the end we found that we had lots of things in common besides being teachers. (prep)
Besides working as a teacher, I give lectures at different halls in the
country. (prep)
I’m too tired to play another set. Besides, it’s starting to rain. (adv)
4 – RESULT
These are used to describe the
result of what has been said: so – therefore – consequently – thus –. And some
noun phrases with ‘reason’, which
could be also included under the heading of “REASON/CAUSE”. So, being the most commonly used in an
informal register (either speaking or writing) and the rest more formal. (Also:
result in – accordingly – in this way – etc.)
THEREFORE
Used to introduce a logical
result
‘I think; therefore,
I am’ (Descartes).
She was under age then, therefore,
she couldn’t get a driving license.
When the crime was committed, the accused was in a state of
shock and therefore not fully
responsible for what he did.
CONSEQUENTLY
Used to introduce the logical
result of what was said before. Synonyms: as a result, as a consequence, therefore.
He never went to class, he never did his homework and consequently he failed.
She almost got drowned when a child, and consequently she’s afraid of water.
He had obstruction of coronary vessels. Consequently, he was prescribed a low-fat diet.
THUS
Thus
is used to introduce an explanation of what has been said before. Meaning:
because of this or that. Synonyms: therefore, consequently. Formal.
Sales slumped in January; thus, many employees have been
dismissed.
We are only tenants in this house; thus, we cannot refurbish it
without the landlord’s acquiescence.
The stock exchange has collapsed, thus, thousands of
shareholders have gone bankrupt.
AS A RESULT OF
Used to give the reason for
an event already mentioned or to be mentioned.
As a result of his infidelity she decided to leave him.
The match was put off as
a result of the heavy rain.
As a result of the firm’s cuts on wages, all the workers went on strike. (See the introduction to ‘on account of’ if
you have doubts about the possessive form ‘firm’s’)
‘REASON’
These are noun phrases whose
head (central word) is the noun ‘reason’, as in ‘the reason why’ – ‘for the
(simple) reason that’ – ‘reasons for’.
Everybody here would like you to tell us the reason why you made such a decision.
We have decided not to go to the theatre for the simple reason that we cannot afford it.
He gave no reasons for
his leaving for France so suddenly. (See
the introduction to ‘on account of’ if you have doubts about the possessive
form ‘firm’s’)
5 – PURPOSE
These linkers are used to
express the goal of an action, its purpose: to-infinitive – in order to – in
order that – so as to – so that. Two groups can be considered, those with a
‘to-infinitive’ and those with a ‘that-clause’.
TO-INFINITIVE
PURPOSE LINKERS
IN ORDER TO (IN ORDER NOT TO)
These introduce purpose when
the subject of the main clause is the same as the subject of the “in order to”
clause. Notice that after ‘to’ there comes an infinitive.
She left home very early in
order to avoid traffic jams.
In order not to be recognized in the crowd, he put on a mask.
In order to watch the match on T.V. he left the office earlier than usual.
IN ORDER FOR SOMEBODY/SOMETHING (NOT) TO
DO
Used to express purpose when
the subject of the main clause is NOT the same as the subject of the “in order
to” clause, which is introduced by means of ‘for’, i.e. ‘for’ + ‘object pronoun’
(me – you – him – her – etc.). Notice that the “for somebody to do” would be
subjunctive in Spanish, French or Italian.
I left the front door open in
order for them to come in.
I bought this hat in
order for you to wear it to the party.
Don’t say he’s phoned in
order for me to go to his place straight from the office.
SO AS TO
We left home early so as
to enjoy every minute of sunlight.
She didn’t phone him back so
as not to encourage him.
When deciding how to go across the country we opted for the bike
so as to see the landscape.
THAT-CLAUSE
PURPOSE LINKERS
IN ORDER THAT
Used in formal speech or
writing. Notice that the main clause subject is different from the subject in
the ‘in order that-clause’. The “in order that” clause usually introduces a
modal verb or bare infinitive (infinitive without ‘to’), which in Spanish has
the value of a subjunctive.
I make a point of visiting my parents in England every summer, in order that my daughter (can)
practise English [notice the absence of ‘s’ if you omit the modal verb
‘can’]
In order that your application be admitted, please be sure that all the required documents are included. [Notice the bare infinitive ‘be’]
Punctuality must be strictly observed in order that the meeting can be started on time.
SO THAT
Mainly used when the main
clause has one subject and the ‘so that’ clause has a different one; when the
subject coincide the ‘to-infinitive’ is usually favoured. Notice in the last
two examples that the ‘so that-clause’ need not take a modal or a bare
infinitive as in ‘in order that’ clauses.
I stopped right in front of the school so that the children didn’t have to cross the street.
Tables have been placed far apart so that diners can feel comfortable.
I display the newspapers like this on the counter so that they are easy to find.
Chop the half onion thinly
and fry under
low heat so that it becomes soft and
translucent. Times, Sunday Times (2015) –Collinsdicitionary.com
6 – CONTRAST
These are a series of words
or prepositional phrases used to express the basic idea of ‘but’: ‘We were on
time but it was closed and we had to wait’: however – nevertheless –
nonetheless – yet – still – although – though – even if – in spite of – despite
– etc.
HOWEVER
It is used to introduce a statement that
contrasts with what has been said before. Beware: it has another use to modify
adjectives or other adverbs, e.g. ‘He wanted to go, however late it was’ – ‘However
patiently I spoke, he wouldn’t listen to me’. With this meaning it is uttered
between pauses, and, when writing, between a stop and a comma or two commas
He
said he was very angry at her. However,
when she arrived he welcomed her with a big broad smile.
Yes,
yours is a very good idea. However,
it seems difficult to carry it out.
He
felt very bad about the argument. He went to see her, however, and made it up with her.
NEVERTHELESS – NONETHELESS
It is used as ‘however’. Notice the
punctuation, which in speech are pauses.
There
was little chance that they would reach the top before dusk. Nevertheless, they tried to.
The
new secretary may have her flaws, but nevertheless
she is much better than the former one.
It
was a very expensive vacuum cleaner. Nevertheless,
I must admit it is the best we have ever had.
The
weather conditions did not favour any progress. Nonetheless, they decided to go on with the original plan.
The
hurricane kept on blowing but gradually it became less destructive nonetheless.
He
was the poorest man in town, but nonetheless
he promised her the moon.
YET
It is used to say that something is true
despite what was said before.
It
was a very strange case, yet very
true.
You’ve
done a good job, yet it can be
improved.
So many questions and yet so few answers. (example from Cambridge dictionary)
STILL
It is used to express contrast.
Although
he promised not to be late again, he still
did not arrive on time.
The
police have scoured the whole city but they still cannot find the terrorists.
It
was cold and there was a storm surge. Still,
they went to have a look at the sea.
IN SPITE OF
Used for contrast as well. It is never
followed by relative pronoun ‘that’, unless this is preceded by ‘the fact’: ‘in
spite of the fact that’. It must be followed by a pronoun, a noun or a verb
that has the function of a noun, i.e. an ‘ing-verb’ (working, climbing, etc.).
In
spite of the terrible weather
conditions, they set off on that fragile yacht.
The police managed to find the fugitive in spite of his hideout.
The police managed to catch the fugitive in spite of his driving very fast. (‘driving’
has the function of a noun, thus the use of the determiner ‘his’, as in the
example above ‘his hideout’ –see ‘on account of’)
In
spite of his shouting at the top of his
voice, nobody heard him. (‘shouting’ has
the function of a noun, thus the use of the determiner ‘his’, as in the example
above ‘his hideout’).
Although implied in the definitions, this use
(his driving/his shouting) is avoided in the examples in all the dictionaries I
have looked up. This may be due to a change in the language following the
pattern: ‘I remember your/you reading it’) In spite of this, you can always
resort to:
The
police managed to catch the fugitive in spite
of the fact that he drove very fast.
In spite of the
fact that he
shouted at the top of his voice, nobody heard him.
DESPITE
Though a bit more formal, it is used just as
‘in spite of’, bearing in mind that the preposition ‘of’ is dropped.
Despite the long queue, they were not
discouraged and bought a couple of tickets to the opera.
He
was shown in despite arriving so
late. (Beware: …shown in – despite…)
Despite his efforts, he couldn’t win.
Despite the fact that it was 3am, he
rang the bell.
ALTHOUGH – THOUGH
These are used to introduce contrast between
two statements. Sometimes it is synonym of ‘in spite of that’, sometimes of
‘but’. When placed at the beginning of the sentence, that is, before the main
clause, it is followed by a pause/comma, whereas when placed after the main
clause the pause/comma is not necessary. ‘Though’ is more informal.
Although she worked very hard, she
couldn’t make ends meet.
We
all enjoyed the outing although we
had a puncture on the way back.
She
did arrive home; it was late, though.
Though it was pouring, they went on
playing to the last ball.
EVEN IF
It is used for contrast with the meaning: ‘in
the unlikely case that’.
Even if he pleaded on his knees, I
wouldn’t forgive what he’s done to me and my family.
I
will eat up all the barbecue even if
I get sick.
Even if you shout at the top of your
voice, nobody will hear you.
EVEN THOUGH
Synonyms: despite the fact that – although –
nevertheless
I
went there even though I knew it was
dangerous.
Even though she was a stranger, she was a
real success at the party.
Even though I’ve been swimming daily for
two months, I don’t feel much fitter.
WHILE
Meaning ‘in contrast’. There is another
meaning, ‘during the time that’, which is not dealt with here. A more formal
variant is ‘whilst’, not usually used in speech.
Housing
is expensive in the city centre, while
on the outskirts housing is cheap.
At
large, dogs are easy to train, while
cats are impossible.
She
was a very reasonable person, while
her brother was absolutely intractable.
WHEREAS
The same meaning as ‘while’ but more formal.
Not often used in speech. It is used to introduce the idea ‘while on the
contrary’ and thus compare or contrast two facts.
In
Britain researchers have obtained positive results, whereas in Germany they have obtained negative ones.
They
are very hard-working people, whereas
we are more inclined to enjoy the pleasures of life.
It
is known for certain that he was above 65 when he married Adela, whereas she was not even 20.
OTHERS
on the contrary – while on the contrary – in
contrast – alternatively – on the one hand/on the other hand – albeit (formal)
– notwithstanding – for all that
7 – SIMILARITY
Group of words or phrases
used to express that two element (actions, things, people…) are alike or
considered alike in some way or other: similarly – likewise – in the same way –
by the same token.
SIMILARLY
Meaning ‘in a similar way’,
‘in the same way’
A female cat identifies her kittens by their smell. Similarly, a mother identifies her baby
by its cry.
The older brother won the javelin competition. Similarly, the younger one got gold
medal in the discus.
LIKEWISE
Meaning ‘in the same way’.
Young boys love playing in the garden. Likewise young girls.
Please, while I’m away feed the canary once a day, and likewise the parrot.
IN THE SAME WAY
Used to compare similar
situations. Likewise.
The great footballer needn’t make a great coach. In the same way, a great coach needn’t
have been a great footballer.
All the discos in the country have been closed. In the same way, all the cinemas and
theatres will soon be closed.
BY THE SAME TOKEN
Meaning ‘for the same reason/s’.
If we wait too long, it will be a disaster. By the same token, if we act too soon, it will also be a disaster.
The two brothers were condemn to prison. By the same token, their cousins should be condemned as well.
8 – OPINIONS
Phrases and clauses used to
introduce the writer’s or speaker’s opinion on what has been said before: in my
opinion – in my view – to my mind – as I see it – I (strongly) believe that – I
think/feel that – it seems to me that.
In my opinion, she is the right person for the job.
In my view, his reaction against the school board was out of place.
To my mind, such an indecent behaviour in such a place as a school full of
children is absolutely condemnable.
As I see it, he is not trying to cheat us but to help us.
I strongly believe that the measures taking by the government will have a negative
effect on our economy.
9
– ADDING DETAILS
These are words or phrases
used to add a more detailed information about what has been said: actually – in
fact – in actual fact – in point of fact – as a matter of fact.
We didn’t arrive on time. Actually,
we arrived very late.
He was not in the office that day. He had not been there for a
week, actually.
I used to live in that street. In fact, at number 24.
Those who survived the conflagration denounced the firemen for
not being there to help them, but in
fact security cameras show the opposite.
He wished he had not been so rude. In actual fact, he sent a letter of apology.
She stated she was innocent. In actual fact, I can support her statement.
I worked for them for a couple of years. As a matter of fact, I didn’t like the job at all.
That’s a very good class. As
a matter of fact, the best I’ve ever had as a teacher.
10 – GENERALISING
These words and phrases are used to
introduce a general statement about what has already been said: as a rule – by
and large – for the most part – generally – in general –largely – on the whole
AS A RULE
I sometimes get up at 8 but, as a rule, I get up before dawn.
As a rule, I never hitchhike, but I did in Europe last summer.
As a general rule, I never borrow money from my friends.
BY AND LARGE
To express that something is
true in general, although not completely true.
By and large, our daughter enjoys her time at school.
Although I may eat bread sometimes, by and large I don’t.
Some of the actors were not brilliant, but by and large it was a good performance.
FOR THE MOST PART
For the most part the pupils in this school behave much better than in other
schools.
Teachers, for the most
part, have to teach manners rather than their subjects.
Women, for the most part,
are better at this kind of jobs.
GENERALLY – IN GENERAL
Generally we spend our holidays on the coast.
In general, he’s a very well-behaved child.
Generally he buys the bread at the barker’s round the corner.
LARGELY
My brother is largely
responsible for the fire.
The duel? It was largely
a matter of honour.
It was largely to his
arriving late that we missed the train.
ON THE WHOLE
On the whole, I like your plan, but I would like to make some points.
On the whole, villagers are quite nice to foreigners, but some of them….
The small villages are, on
the whole, all clean, and, most important, silent at night.
11 – GIVING EXAMPLES
Used to exemplify what has
been stated before: for example – for instance – such as – like – particularly
– in particular – especially – (more) specifically
FOR EXAMPLE
In some South American countries Spanish coexists with
pre-Columbian languages, for example
in Paraguay.
Traditionally they cook meat in different ways, for example, they wrap it up in cow
hide and bury it with hot stones.
FOR INSTANCE
You must have noticed some deficiencies in the house, for instance the lack of trees to
protect it from the wind.
Some lawsuits are very complicated, for instance the one with Crimson and sons Co.
SUCH AS
H’s an excellent employee, but he would do funny things in the
office, such as jumping on the desk
and crowing while flapping his arms like wings.
Many immigrants, such as
the Chinese and Chileans, left the country when the economic recession began.
PARTICULARLY
To refer to “one” among many,
or that something is more usual.
You must keep your room tidy, particularly your books.
We are interested in all kinds of earthenware, particularly the one from Central
America.
IN PARTICULAR
What in particular
does she like about that portrait?
We have more of these in the warehouse. Are you looking for
anything in particular?
ESPECIALLY
Used to emphasize one among
many, or particularise a situation.
All these plants you see bloom all year round, especially in spring, of course.
She loves Spanish wines, especially
those from Ribeiro.
This is a wonderful little village, especially when you’re here.
SPECIFICALLY
To say something is given
special attention, to add more precise information or to describe something clearly.
This is the first machine specifically designed to be used by children under five.
She studies Scandinavian Languages in general, more specifically Swedish.
She was asked to repeat specifically the words her assailant had used.
12 – LISTING
To express the order in which
statements are made. Some of them especially useful in essays and other formal
writing or even speech and others in narratives: to begin with/to start with –
firstly/secondly/thirdly… – in the first place/in the second place…. – first of
all – then – next – finally – lastly
TO BEGIN WITH
To begin with, we must find his hideout if we want to catch this criminal.
‘Well, what do you think of the plan?’ ‘To begin with, I find it dangerous in broad daylight.
‘How do you find the job?’ ‘A bit wearisome to begin with but then I got used to it’. (meaning: ‘at first’)
FIRSTLY/SECONDLY….
I’ll tell you why I didn’t stab the victim to death. Firstly, I have never seen him; secondly, I was not in the country at
the time; and thirdly, I always faint
at the sight of blood.
IN THE FIRST PLACE/IN THE SECOND…LASTLY
‘In the first place, what have you come here for?’ (meaning: to begin with)
‘We advise not to take over that enterprise. In the first place, because their
business is not in our line. In the
second place, because it is not in our area of influence; and lastly, because its finances are in a
ruinous state’.
FIRST OF ALL
To introduce the first of a
series or to say which is the most important.
It has not been a great idea investing in that country. First of all, because taxes are higher
than everywhere in the world.
First of all, let me ask you a question, then you can tell us whatever you
have to tell us.
NEXT / THEN
Used to present the next item
in a series.
On preparing a writing, to begin with you must warm up, or do
the thinking; next/then, do the writing itself, and
finally review, or read for possible errors.
Let’s finish with this; then
we’ll go wherever you want to.
First you open the tar, and then/next you put the bug into it.
FINALLY / LASTLY
‘I’ve been questioning you all morning, Mr Glare. Now, lastly, can you tell me exactly when
you arrived on the scene?’
And finally/lastly
you add the sugar and the ice.
…….and lastly, let me
wish you the best in this dangerous adventure you are about to begin.
13 – SEQUENCING
These are used to show a
sequence of events (narrative) or of reasoning (essay – formal letters): first
– at first – in the beginning – next – then – meanwhile – in the meantime –
after that – afterwards – at (long) last – finally – in the end.
FIRST
First they decided to stay, but suddenly they left without a word.
I’ll tell you what he did: first
he came into the house, then he looked for the deed, and finally he left.
AT FIRST
At first she doubted, but it seems she made up her mind, because next
she just ran out.
I didn’t believe him at
first, but then he convinced me.
IN THE BEGINNING
This should not be mistaken
for ‘at the beginning’, which refers to a start ‘in space’ (at the beginning of the street) or of
something in motion (at the beginning of
a film/story/journey). In the
beginning shows the start of a process, a series of events.
‘In the beginning,
God created the heavens and the earth.’ (Genesis 1)
In the beginning,
embryos created through IVF were implanted in the womb right away. (Sarah Zhang, The Atlantic, quoted in Merraim-Webster).
In the beginning, these parts were placed outside this small cubicle,
but we have discovered that, putting them inside, the whole machine works
better.
NEXT / THEN
Not only used for listing but
also to arrange events in sequence.
First he opened the door and then he left.
They went to the supermarket and next to the ironmonger.
MEANWHILE
Used to express that two
events do not take place one after the other but at the same time.
Peel the potatoes. Meanwhile
I’ll chop the onions.
He went on a cruise round the world. Meanwhile his wife stayed at home looking after the children.
IN THE MEANTIME
Children, your Mrs Banks will be here soon. In the meantime you can do some reading.
He has been having a great time downtown. In the meantime she was working late in the office.
AFTER THAT
Definitely the burglar broke into the Jones’s and took away
their jewels. After that he escaped
on a bike.
She studied laws and then philosophy. After that she decided to go into medicine.
AFTERWARDS
Same meaning as “after that”.
I walked all the way to the centre. Afterwards, I took a cab.
Mr Miller went shopping and afterwards
called on the Johnsons.
AT (LONG) LAST
We walked all over the city, got lost, tried to find a cab:
nobody spoke our language. At (long)
last we arrived at the station.
In the very beginning, nobody believed in us. But we worked hard
for many a month, until at last we
found the solution.
The sun was setting. I had been working in the fields since
dawn, but at last it was dinner
time.
FINALLY
Finally, after six
months of annoying red tape, he had got his work permit in that country.
When he heard the front door open, the burglar rushed to the
kitchen, jumped through the window into the garden and finally climbed over the fence to be out in the street.
She didn’t want to give away her fellow spies, but finally, after five days of questions
and torture she broke down and began to talk.
IN THE END
To express the end of a
process. Notice the difference with ‘at the end’, which is used with space or
time considered as a stretch of space.
All was congratulations and praise and taps on the shoulder, but
in the end I was not paid a single
dollar.
First he tried on the internet; then the big supermarket round
the corner; next he went to three small shops; in the end he bought the marmalade over the internet.
No matter how cleverly criminals cover up their traces: in the end they are caught.
14
– SHOWING TIME
Together with the linkers
that show sequence the most important in narrative. They are used to state when
an event took or takes or will take place in relation to another event. The
most common being: when – if – while – as – before – after – until – as soon as
– no sooner than – by the time – since – suddenly/all of a sudden.
I rushed back home but when I arrived he had already left.
When he opened the door he found the terrible scene.
I’m sure he will be at home when I get there (beware: ‘get’, though simple present in
English, it’s subjunctive in Spanish and other Romance languages)
When eating fish, he would be very cautious about bones.
He lived nine months in England and
three in France. If he was in France
he would speak (used to speak) French, if in England he would speak English. (False conditional in Advance your English, Broadhead, Annie, CUP). Notice that ‘when’ can be used instead of
‘if’.
I was preparing a late Sunday lunch while my husband was hoovering up the
sitting-room carpet.
I opened the unexpected letter while he stood by me.
While training, I sprained an ankle.
While in Italy, some two years ago, I met Francesca.
As he got older he gained in wisdom.
He watched her as she got dressed.
All she remembers is that, as she was crossing the street, she
heard a shout and the screeching brakes.
Before, he looked out of the front window, and only then did he go out.
(Notice the comma following
‘before’; otherwise the same idea should be expressed: ‘Before going out, he
looked out of the front window’)
Before answering he checked the number on the phone screen.
She left before their arrival.
After he told me the truth, I decided to speak with his
brother-in-law.
After reading the deed, please sign on every single page.
She was very patient, and only left after they had arrived.
The whole family waited on the platform until the train pulled into the
station.
Not until
she had crossed the finishing line in first position, did her husband open the
bottle of champagne.
She will not make it up with him until he tells her the truth.
As soon as it stopped raining they left the cabin for the nearest village,
which was three miles through the forest.
As soon as I see your answers to the exercise I’ll tell you whether you
have passed.
So nervous was my sister at our
brother’s disappearance that she burst into tears as soon as she saw him.
He had no sooner returned from Italy than
he had to fly to Japan.
No sooner had they received the news than
they began to ring up all their friends.
No sooner said than done.
By the time I arrive home, the kids will be asleep. (beware: ‘arrive’, though simple present
in English, it’s subjunctive in Spanish and other Romance languages)
By the time the climbers reached the top, the weather had changed and they
were caught in a snowstorm.
By the time he realised it was raining, the clothes on the line were
sopping wet.
Since the very moment she walked in I knew we were to share our
lives.
His mother has been worried ever since he moved to Berlin.
It was the first time we met since I had left the country.
It was absolutely silent. And suddenly the explosion.
He was peacefully reading in that
armchair, inspector, and suddenly,
when least expected, he jumped up and ran out of the house never to be seen
again.
It all happened so suddenly that I couldn’t react.
15
– CONCLUDING
Mostly used when closing
essays or other formal writing in which ideas have been expounded: in
conclusion – to conclude – to sum up – finally
In conclusion, if we do not face this problem now we’ll have to face a bigger
one in the future.
In conclusion, I would like to remind my readers that global warming is a
global problem.
To conclude this essay, let me quote the famous words of the poet….
To conclude, I would like to say that should we do nothing to better the conditions
of the planet now, disaster will be unavoidable.
To sum up, we’re facing the worst crisis in our
history.
After this long
talk I would like to sum up by
saying that…..
And finally, just let me add that the
future of the planet is in our hands.
References and quotations
1.
A Grammar of Contemporary English, R. Quirk et al. (Descriptive grammar)
2.
A Practical English Grammar, Thomson, A.J.
and Martinet, A.V. (Prescriptive grammar)
3.
Advance your English, Broadhead A. CUP.
Thanks! It's adsolutely fantastic! I need to print it as soon as possible in order to study it carefully. In the mean time, I'll try to read it and learn some and use them such as I'm doing.
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